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Rivi 2:
Noin 3300 eaa alkoi Equadorin rannikolle syntyä suuria kyliä, jotka elivät kalastuksella ja maissin viljelyllä. Jo esikeraamisella kaudella noin 3100 eaa alkaen oli syntynyt suuria maanviljelyyn ja kalastukseen perustuvia asutuskeksuksia, joihin liittyi valtavia temppelimonumentteja. Tämä viittaa jonkinlaiseen papiston syntyyn.
== Perun myöhäinen esikeraaminen
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Dec. 2004. New radiocarbon dating of 95 samples taken from pyramid mounds and houses in the Supe, Fortaleza, and Pativilca valleys indicates that by 3100 BC there were complex societies with a network of 20 separate major residential centers creating monumental architecture and communal buildings. The new research, published in the journal Nature, demonstrates that by 3100 BC monumental buildings were found across the whole region, not just at Caral.
http://bruceowen.com/worldprehist/3250s19.doc
technology and lifestyle not too different from Native Americans of the Bay Area
But a few sites were different, like Aspero
Aspero featured 9 to 11 flat-topped mounds ("huacas")
made by modifying natural hills
“Huaca” means a sacred place, usually an artificial platform mound, but sometimes a peak, a special rock outcrop, etc.
Huaca de los Sacrificios 2903 BC radiocarbon date, first construction probably up to 200 years older (3100 BC?)
this was some 200 to 400 years before the first Egyptian pyramid, the stepped pyramid of Djoser (2686 BC)
Huaca de los Idolos 2750 BC, probably started a few centuries earlier (2900 BC??)
on a platform 10 m high (32 feet), 30 X 40 m base (about 100 X 130 feet)
top covered by rooms, insides plastered and painted red and yellow
stairway up the front to a central entrance
central room divided by a wall with “clapboard” pattern molded on the outer surface, with T-shaped doorway
next to it, but entered by a separate system of hallways, a room with a central niche opposite the entryway, with a bench or altar built up to the level of the base of the niche
the “Idolos” are at least 13 intentionally broken figurines found in one of the niches (carefully filled for a later reconstruction)
other offerings include yarn “god’s eyes”, and a colorful “feather arrangement”
Aspero did have a modest town around it, maybe enough to have built the site over a long period of time
El Paraiso
dates to the very end of the coastal preceramic and into the next period; earliest date 2000 BC
58 ha complex
mounds up to three stories high
irregular plan suggests accumulation over a long time
restored platform is 8 m (26 feet) high
central court with red clay floor, red painted walls, and four 1-meter diameter fire pits around a sunken central area
total over 100,000 tons of rock fill
estimated 2 million person-days to construct
number of people who lived there or nearby is debated
relatively little evidence of residence, but some burned midden layers suggest to some investigators that there were many people there
otherwise, the building projects might have had to draw people from various settlements in the area
Generalities of the coastal Late Preceramic
stratification
few goods that could not be produced by any household
no markedly elite burials, although some were definitely richer than others
at site of Asia, 28 burials
most had 2 to 4 textiles
a few had more
one had 12, plus various gourds, bone tools, wooden tubes, a comb, a sling, etc.
monumental architecture
big labor mobilization without any sign of an elite or state organization
no significant storage features or craft workshops
i.e. no obvious economic function (unlike Mesopotamia, Indus)
not residential (un like Mesopotamia, China)
not mainly mortuary (un like Egypt)
mainly used for ritual (like Olmec and Maya)
how could such monuments be possible without:
much agriculture
notable social stratification that would suggest leaders
concentration and redistribution of surplus
cities, warfare, craft specialization…??
a possible alternative to stratification: “cargo” system
"cargo" = "responsibility" or "task" assigned to someone
rotating capable people through offices of leadership
this is a way to coordinate group activities (like building monuments) without establishing a permanent status hierarchy
although people who have successfully completed numerous cargos become generally more respected and important
suggested because it is still in common use in the Andes
can we project this 4000+ years into the past? Not for sure, but we can at least suggest.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/sa/ht02sa.htm
Rivi 25 ⟶ 88:
--->
Muutamaan Perun jokilaaksoon syntyi n. 3100 eaa alkaen keskuksia, joissa oli tasaisella katkaistun pyramidin muotoisella alustalla asuintaloja ja/tai temppeleitä. Näitä tehtiin esim lisäämällä
luonnolliseen maakumpuun lisää maata ja kiviä. Näin syntyi muotoiltu kumpu.
Näitä rakennelmia kutsutaan nykyään nimellä ''huaca''.<ref>http://bruceowen.com/worldprehist/3250s19.doc</ref>
Noin 3100 eaa nous Huaca de los sacrificos.
Perun keskirannikolla lähekkäin sijaitsevissa Supén, Fortalezan ja Pativilcan laaksossa kukoisti uusien tutkimusten mukaan<ref>http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/coast.html</ref> yhteisöjä, jotka rakensivat suuria monumentteja, lähinnä temppeleitä, muuallakin kuin usein mainitun [[Caral]]in alueella. Tämä oli Supéjoen kulttuuri tai [[Norte Chicon kulttuuri]].
Noin 2600 eaa nousivat Supejokea hieman pohjoisempana Casmajoen laakson Moxeke ja Tortugas. Tältä ajalta tunnetaan myös Aspero.
== Alkujakso ==
Alkujakson kulttuuri keskittyi Perun rannikon [[Casma]]joen laaksoon.
Alkujakson alussa sosiaalinen kerrostuneisuus (ts ihmisten varallisuus- ja arvostuserot) näyttävät olleen pieniä mutta lisääntyneen loppua kohti. Näin siitä huolimatta, että rakennettiin suuria monumentteja.<ref>http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/chavin.html</ref>
Saviastioiden tyylin paikallisuudesta päätellen Perun seudulla oli monia pieniä paikallisia keskuksia.
Alkujaksolla ilmestyivät suuret temppelikeskukset
Rivi 38 ⟶ 109:
[[Sechin Alto]], Garagay Lima, Kotosh, Aspero, Las Haldas, Punkurí, Huaca Loma, Caballo Muerto.
Näissä oli
na koostuivat katkaistun pyramidin muotoisista tasnteista.
U-kuvio muodostui korkeasta katkaistusta päätypyramidista, jonka huipulle vei liuska tai portaat, ja sen edessä olevan kentän sivuilla olevista pitkulaisista tasanteista.
Kentällä saattoi olla pyöreitä tai neilimäisiä maahan upotettuja kenttiä. Pyramidimaisten tasanteiden huipula oli rakennuksia. Sechin altossa tyypillisen U:n edessä on upotetu pyöreä tasanne, ja sen perässä avoin kenttä, jonka edessä
taas U:n sivuja muistuttavat pitkukaiset tasanteet, joiden keskellä olevalla kentällä oli pyöreä syvennys.
U-keskuksia tunnetaan noin 20, rannikon keksuksille on tyypillistä niihin liittyvien töiden jättimäiyys.
Huaca la Floridassa oli 1750-1650 eaa tehty jopa 30 hehtaarin tasanteita.
Rivi 98 ⟶ 172:
• ca. 1100 B.C. The architectural complex at Cardal in Peru's Lurin Valley has several rectangular plazas, ten sunken circular courts, and a central pyramid with a stairway more than eighteen feet wide. Its rubble core is surfaced with white clay. A relief band of giant interlocking teeth and upper fangs decorates the walls of the entryway to the central atrium.
http://bruceowen.com/worldprehist/3250s19.doc
Initial Period 2000-800 BC
so called because it was the time of the first (initial) use of ceramics
these dates fall around the end of the latest periods we looked at in Mesopotamia and Egypt
subsistence shifted from mostly marine resources to more irrigated agriculture, as people moved further up into the coastal segments of the river valleys
root crops (potatoes, oca, ulluco, manioc [yuca] etc.) plus beans, squashes, fruits
maize still rare or absent on the coast, just appearing in the highlands
no consensus on why they shifted to depend more on irrigated crop production
they began making ceramic vessels, maybe for boiling starchy crops
organization
highly variable, regional (patchy) pottery styles suggest lots of small, closed, self-sufficient groups
the larger valleys had several ceremonial centers at this time, each center apparently associated with a small, local canal system and the people living on the land that it watered
the canal systems were still of a scale that a village could manage
much greater elaboration of monumental architecture
similar in concept to the Late Preceramic, but
many more ceremonial sites
much bigger and more elaborate constructions
continued the practice of repeated interment and rebuilding
structures started to feature large adobe friezes, often painted in bright colors, visible to crowds in plazas
U-shaped mound complexes (Initial period, 2000 - 800 BC)
About 20 major U-shaped complexes known
U-shaped arrangement of central and flanking mounds with interior plaza
stairway up the center front, forming a dramatic entrance to the top of the main mound
Huaca la Florida
1750-1650 BC
6.7 million person-days, not including leveling the area, plastering, modeling, and painting the outsides
And there are others even larger!
Plazas up to 30 ha!
Las Haldas
another large Initial period U-shaped mound complex
Cardal
A smaller U-shaped center
entrance stairway flanked by painted clay frieze of a gigantic mouth with interlocking teeth and canines 1 m long
painted cream, yellow, red, and black
small habitation areas nearby
contemporary with similar centers, one just 1 km away, another 5 km away
suggests that small groups built and used them
on top of central mound, several burials
both male and female
presumably important people
but grave goods were limited: a few ordinary ceramics; one old man had a necklace of sea lion teeth and earspools made from porpoise vertebrae
Garagay
1640-900 BC
3.2 million person-days
painted relief of shaman (?) using a hallucinogen?
Huaca de los Reyes
further north on the coast
U-shaped complex with colonnades facing three sides of a main rectangular plaza
facades had large, modeled clay sculptures of anthropomorphic heads with fangs, toothy feline mouths, etc, painted in green, cream, and black
estimated 960 person-years to build
Generalizations about the Initial period coastal U-shaped mound tradition
social stratification
some elite burials, but "elite" did not have a lot of fancy goods
some residences on top of main mound at Cardal would presumably be for elites
but their refuse was like that in ordinary houses
i.e. weak stratification
maybe a cargo system?
or acquired, not hereditary status, so that wealth did not accumulate over generations in certain families?
no signs of large settlements over a few thousand people
in the Initial period Casma valley: an extreme case
Sechín Alto
oldest date is 1720 BC, construction presumably started even earlier
Twice the volume of Huaca La Florida
over 13 million person-days to build
that is 36,000 person-years (without weekends off!)
(still only one eleventh of the estimate for the great pyramid at Giza: 400,000 person-years)
final form reflects around 1000 years of rebuilding!
incredible cultural conservatism, comparable to Mesopotamian temples
250 x 300 m at base (7.5 ha, bigger than the entire town of Jericho!)
base is bigger than the Great Pyramid at Giza or the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan
this single platform mound would cover the entire SSU main quad and all of Stevenson, Darwin, and the library
44 m tall (143 feet) at highest point
like a 9-story building!
area in front of main mound:
four successive rectangular courts
3 with sunken circular plazas
total 1.4 km long (close to a mile long!)
Cerro Sechín
much smaller than Sechín Alto
not a mound or U-shaped structure, but a room complex at the foot of a hill
originally adobe, with large cats and fish modeled and painted on the front at different times
stone sculpture wall built around 1520 BC, after numerous earlier rebuildings and expansions
What does the wall mean?
“Medical school” (not very likely)
Warfare?
residential sites were not defensible at this time
sites were on flat land near irrigable areas, not on hilltops or ridges
they did not have defensive walls
and no other evidence of significant warfare
like lots of burials with traumatic injuries
or lots of weapons in burials or other contexts
maybe warfare was real but rare?
or even so rare as to be a historical to mythical memory?
or it was some sort of ritualized conflict different from our concept of warfare, such that defenses were not appropriate?
the Andean concept of tinku
scheduled, organized fight between villages or descent groups
often resulting in real injuries or deaths
Pampa de las Llamas / Moxeke (2000 - 1500 BC) (Still Casma valley)
about 200 ha!
over twice the area of the entire SSU campus!
a complex with two big mounds connected by plazas, and a lot of smaller ceremonial and residential buildings
Moxeke main mound
stepped pyramid/platform mound
160 x 170 m at base (a bit over a third the area of Sechín Alto)
would cover most of the main SSU quad and library
30 m high (98 feet)
10 m (33 feet) up on the sides were huge painted sculptures in niches, clearly for viewing from the ground
front had huge niches occupied by sculptural figures
presumably the setting for ceremonies mean to be appreciated by a sizable crowd located in the plaza
Huaca A
very different from Moxeke main mound
broad platform with a complex of rooms on top with very high walls (4-7 m, roughly 16 feet), many with niches
mostly built of fieldstones set in mortar, with surfaces plastered and painted white
136 m x 119 m (a little smaller than Moxeke main mound)
originally painted white, with huge feline (cat) paintings around entrance
no evidence that people lived in Huaca A
no hearths, no food garbage
the rooms were for storage?
very little evidence of what would have been stored there
not surprising; if it had any value, it would have been removed
pollen from niches suggests cotton, beans, potatoes, peanuts
rodent bones also suggest storage
administrative rooms?
Numerous platforms along the edges of the huge plaza between Huaca A and Moxeke main mound
some had residences behind them, built in the fieldstone and mortar style of Huaca A
these were presumably residences of the elite who were associated with the attached platform mound
but the garbage in these residences is similar to the plainer ones further from the plaza
so does the architectural difference indicate a status hierarchy, or not?
low-status housing a little further away from Huaca A and the plaza
perishable buildings, with probably cane walls set along stone footings
less regular plans
hearths smaller
not connected to or aligned with public architecture
domestic refuse similar to the better-built residences
generalities about the Initial period Casma valley
no craft workshops known, nor fine goods that would imply craft specialists
except the sculptures, paintings, and buildings themselves
no really large concentrations of population
no large-scale irrigation works
still no impressive elite burials
But--
huge monumental architecture
maybe storage at Huaca A
possibly higher-status residences associated with the fancy buildings
So, was it a complex society, or even a state?
Crisis on the coast: 900 - 700 BC
end of Initial Period - beginning of Early Horizon
coastal people started growing maize, maybe introduced from the highlands
collapse of the U-shaped temple tradition
Las Haldas: stairway plastering job stopped halfway through
leaving pegs and string in place
never rebuilt again
Cardal: painted clay and straw mannequin / deity left laying on the main staircase
many other examples of unfinished projects, all apparently dating to roughly the same period
Started building fortresses for the first time (or are they something else?)
but people continued to live in villages and small towns of up to several thousand people
warfare seems to have changed from rare or symbolic to real (but this is still being debated)
Chanquillo
an example of a fortress
high, defensible point
double round outer walls, baffled entries, limited interior space
but some features aren’t right
not much storage, no water source...
doors that could be barred from the outside
some seem to “defend” bedrock outcrops
maybe they are really some sort of ritual constructions, possibly related to tinku?
other examples were rectangular or irregular in shape
all in defensible locations
typically have complex, baffled gates
all have massive walls
in any case, this is a radically different tradition
together with adoption of maize, and changes in pottery and textile style, this architectural and ceremonial change is attributed to a powerful wave of influence from the highlands… but why, how, and what was it?
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